Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period

The phenomenon of Jewish sects is one that characterizes the Second Temple period. There are no mentions of Jewish sects in the Tanakh (the Old Testament). The formation of sects is a result of various developments that took place during this period.

The Perspective of Deuteronomy

In Deuteronomy, there is a clear distinction between Israel and the rest of the nations—a perception of strict segregation.

“For you are a holy people to the Lord your God; the Lord your God has chosen you to be a people for Himself, a special treasure above all the peoples on the face of the earth.”

(Deuteronomy 7:6)

The prohibition against mingling with other nations is due to the concern of idol worship.

“For they will turn your sons away from following Me, to serve other gods; so the anger of the Lord will be aroused against you and destroy you suddenly.”

(Deuteronomy 7:4)

Ezra's Viewpoint (5th Century BC)

"After these things had been done, the officials approached me and said, 'The people of Israel and the priests and the Levites have not separated themselves from the peoples of the lands with their abominations, from the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Jebusites, the Ammonites, the Moabites, the Egyptians, and the Amorites. For they have taken some of their daughters to be wives for themselves and for their sons, so that the holy race has mixed itself with the peoples of the lands. And in this faithlessness, the hand of the officials and chief men has been foremost.'

As soon as I heard this, I tore my garment and my cloak and pulled hair from my head and beard and sat appalled. Then all who trembled at the words of the God of Israel, because of the faithlessness of the returned exiles, gathered around me while I sat appalled until the evening sacrifice. And at the evening sacrifice, I rose from my fasting, with my garment and my cloak torn, and fell upon my knees and spread out my hands to the Lord my God, saying:

'O my God, I am ashamed and blush to lift my face to you, my God, for our iniquities have risen higher than our heads, and our guilt has mounted up to the heavens.' "

(Ezra 9:1-6)

In the book of Ezra, the Jewish people who returned from the Babylonian exile are depicted as having caused their own misfortune by mixing with other nations.

“For they have taken some of their daughters as wives for themselves and their sons, so that the holy seed is mixed with the peoples of these lands.”

(Ezra 9:2)

Note: In Judaism, there is a law concerning the desecration of seed, specifically related to priests from the Tribe of Levi. If the seed is desecrated, it cannot be repaired. A priest conceived from a forbidden relationship is considered an invalid priest.

In Ezra, we see this Law, originally intended for Priests, being applied to all of Israel.

The Transition from the First to the Second Temple Period

During the transition from the First Temple period to the Second Temple period, a new perception seems to have emerged—likely within priestly circles. What was once a law exclusive to priests was now being applied to the entire nation of Israel. This was an unprecedented development.

Although this view was not universally accepted, it reflects a process that began during the Babylonian exile—an effort to protect Israel from the spiritual consequences of the diaspora.

The Emergence of Segregation in Post-Exilic Israel

Another perception of segregation begins to emerge in Israel when the Jews who return to the Land of Israel after the Babylonian exile start to see themselves as a distinct group, separate from other groups within Israel.

"When the enemies of Judah and Benjamin heard that the exiles were building a temple for the Lord, the God of Israel, they came to Zerubbabel and to the heads of the families and said, “Let us help you build because, like you, we seek your God and have been sacrificing to him since the time of Esarhaddon king of Assyria, who brought us here.”

 But Zerubbabel, Joshua and the rest of the heads of the families of Israel answered, “You have no part with us in building a temple to our God. We alone will build it for the Lord, the God of Israel, as King Cyrus, the king of Persia, commanded us.”

(Ezra 4:1-3)

The Jewish group that returned did not allow the inhabitants of the land to join them in building the Second Temple. Those who came back from exile viewed the local inhabitants as rivals—some even as enemies.

Note: The people dwelling in the Samarian mountains were not considered part of Israel but rather seen as foreigners. However, historical evidence suggests there was some mixing between remnants of Israel and other nations, eventually forming the group later known as the Samaritans.

The returning exiles claimed that they alone constituted Israel and that the Temple belonged exclusively to them.

This exhibits a form of sectarianism, though not in the strict sociological sense of a group formally declaring itself separate from others.

The Question of Foreigners and Separation

The relationship with foreigners—those who were not part of Israel—was a key issue driving this desire for separation. Establishing clear boundaries between "us" and "them" was at the core of the emerging sectarian phenomenon.

We see this reflected in the words of the prophet Ezekiel, who envisions the rebuilt Temple and the role of priests within it (Ezekiel 44:1-17).

On one hand, he describes those permitted to enter the Temple, while on the other, he speaks of those who are forbidden—explicitly mentioning foreigners. The very fact that he addresses this suggests that there was ongoing debate about the role of foreigners in the future Temple.

In contrast, the prophet Isaiah presents a more welcoming perspective toward foreigners

"Thus says the Lord: 'Keep justice, and do righteousness, for soon my salvation will come, and my righteousness be revealed. Blessed is the man who does this, and the son of man who holds it fast, who keeps the Sabbath, not profaning it, and keeps his hand from doing any evil.

Let not the foreigner who has joined himself to the Lord say, 'The Lord will surely separate me from his people'; and let not the eunuch say, 'Behold, I am a dry tree.' For thus says the Lord: 'To the eunuchs who keep my Sabbaths, who choose the things that please me and hold fast my covenant, I will give in my house and within my walls a monument and a name better than sons and daughters; I will give them an everlasting name that shall not be cut off.'

And the foreigners who join themselves to the Lord, to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, everyone who keeps the Sabbath and does not profane it, and holds fast my covenant—"

(Isaiah 56:1-6)

His words indicate a process through which Gentiles could draw closer to Israel.

Note: Since the Babylonian exile and throughout history, when the nation of Israel was scattered around the world, Gentiles have shown interest in Israel, seeking to learn more and even to form connections. At that time, however, the institution of formal conversion to Judaism had not yet been established.

A Growing Tension in the Persian Era

Because of the stark contrast between Ezekiel’s exclusionary stance and Isaiah’s more inclusive vision, this issue became a significant debate during the Persian period (after the return from Babylon and before the rise of the Hellenistic era).

Should Israel open itself to the Gentiles or remain closed off?

It is possible that the hints of sectarianism found in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah reflect this underlying tension—one that arose even before Israel's encounter with Greek culture and the Hellenistic world.

The Hellenistic World and the Rise of Sectarianism

The encounter between the Jewish and Hellenistic worlds played a significant role in the rise of sectarianism. Jewish sects became an organized phenomenon during the Greek period (from 332 BC onward). While Hellenism introduced many aspects of Greek culture to the East, its greatest impact lay in the new worldview it brought—one that would challenge the traditional Old World order.

Isocrates, a Greek rhetorician from the 4th century BC, wrote that being Hellenic was not determined by ethnic origin but by one's cultural affiliation. He argued that whoever embraces Hellenistic education is worthy of being called Hellenic—more so than someone who shares Greek ancestry but lacks this cultural connection.

In the Old World order, a man's identity was traditionally determined by two factors: land and family. However, Isocrates introduced a new foundation for identity—education, which encompassed language and thought. Under this new paradigm, if a person spoke Greek, dressed in Greek fashion, and was educated in Greek philosophy, they were considered Greek, regardless of whether they were born in Egypt, Persia, Israel, or elsewhere.

This shift in identity perception had a profound impact on the Jewish world, making the question of identity a central issue during the Second Temple period.

The Greeks introduced their cultural assets to the East, including theaters, science, and philosophy.

One of the defining features of the Hellenistic world was the rise of large cities. These urban centers were hubs of culture, featuring planned roads and plazas, advanced water supply systems, bustling markets, athletic facilities, grand temples and altars, and magnificent public buildings.

Throughout the Hellenistic world, people read the same books, listened to the same musicians, and watched the same theatrical performances as actors traveled from city to city. Education was standardized—students across the empire learned the same lessons in school.

The Greek world, and later the Hellenistic and Roman worlds, evolved into a global culture.

In a global culture where everyone reads the same books, listens to the same music, and follows the same customs, what defines a person’s national identity?

This question became critical during the Second Temple period.

Judea

From the return from exile at the end of the 6th century BC until the Hasmonean period (mid-2nd century BC), Judea remained a relatively small region within the broader territory of Israel. Much of the land that had once belonged to Israel was now inhabited by pagan Gentiles. The largest concentration of Jews was in Judea, while outside of it, Hellenistic and Gentile cities surrounded them, exerting cultural and social pressure on the Jewish population.

It is no surprise that the formation of Jewish sects reached its peak during the Hasmonean period, particularly as the Hasmonean dynasty expanded its conquests. The Hasmonean rulers were neither fully Hellenistic nor entirely Jewish; instead, they attempted to merge elements of both cultures.

This blend is evident in their coinage, which featured both Jewish symbols (such as the Menorah and ancient Hebrew script) and Hellenistic ones (such as the anchor). It is also reflected in the grand Hasmonean tombs of elite government officials, which bear a strong resemblance to Hellenistic tombs—even those of the priestly class were constructed in a similar fashion.

On one hand, the Hasmoneans maintained a connection to Israel’s heritage; on the other, they aligned themselves with the larger Hellenistic world. This fusion of Jewish and foreign elements created significant tension. 

"In those days, certain renegades came out from Israel and misled many, saying, 'Let us go and make a covenant with the Gentiles around us, for since we separated from them, many disasters have come upon us.' This proposal pleased them, and some of the people eagerly went to the king, who authorized them to observe the customs of the Gentiles. They built a gymnasium in Jerusalem, according to Gentile custom, and removed the marks of circumcision and abandoned the holy covenant. They allied themselves with the nations and sold themselves to do evil."

(1 Maccabees 1:11-15)

The author of the Book of Jubilees, an ancient Jewish apocryphal text, was likely a priest engaged in polemics against the more compromising priests serving in Jerusalem at the time. Although the book is framed as a revelation to Moses on Mount Sinai, its content reflects contemporary concerns.

"For the Lord did not make this covenant with all people, but only with Abraham and his descendants. That is why He commanded the children of Israel to keep it as an everlasting sign, so that they would not be like the nations and would remain set apart for Him. He gave them the command to circumcise their sons on the eighth day, so that they would bear His mark in their flesh as a sign of the covenant. This law is not to be removed or altered forever. Anyone who rejects this commandment has broken the covenant and defiled the sign of belonging to the Lord."

(Jubilees 15:39-42)

This text confirms that some Jews sought to conceal their identity by abandoning circumcision. This dilemma defined the era:

• How can I preserve my identity?

• Should I hide or suppress it?

• Or should I strengthen it?

The emergence of Jewish sects was an attempt to address these pressing questions.

Josephus Flavius and the Jewish Sects

It is no surprise that during the Hasmonean era, the Jewish historian Josephus Flavius documented the different Jewish sects in Israel.

"At this time there were three sects among the Jews, who had different opinions concerning human actions; the one was called the sect of the Pharisees, another the sect of the Sadducees, and the other the sect of the Essenes. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some actions, but not all, are the work of fate, and some of them are in our own power, and that they are liable to fate, but are not caused by fate. But the sect of the Essenes affirm that fate governs all things, and that nothing befalls men but what is according to its determination.

And for the Sadducees, they take away fate, and say there is no such thing, and that the events of human affairs are not at its disposal; but they suppose that all our actions are in our own power, so that we are ourselves the causes of what is good, and receive what is evil from our own folly."

(Antiquities of the Jews 13:171-173)

Josephus is considered a highly reliable source on this subject because he not only describes the sects but also recounts his personal experiences with them. He details his exposure to these groups in his autobiography, The Life of Flavius Josephus, chapter 2:

"And when I was about sixteen years old [A.D. 53], I had a mind to make trial of the several sects that were among us. These sects are three: the first is that of the Pharisees; the second that of the Sadducees; and the third that of the Essens; as we have frequently told you. For I thought that by this means I might choose the best, if I were once acquainted with them all. So I contented myself with hard fare; and underwent great difficulties; and went through them all. Nor did I content myself with these trials only: but when I was informed that one whose name was Banus lived in the desert, and used no other clothing than grew upon trees; and had no other food than what grew of its own accord; and bathed himself in cold water frequently, both by night and by day, in order to preserve his chastity, I imitated him in those things; and continued with him three years [from A.D. 53 to A.D. 56].

So when I had accomplished my desires, I returned back to the city: being now nineteen years old: and began to conduct myself according to the rules of the sect of the Pharisees: which is of kin to the sect of the Stoicks, as the Greeks call them."

Josephus came from a wealthy and aristocratic family, with his mother’s lineage tracing back to the Hasmoneans. As a priest from a prestigious Jerusalemite background, he belonged to the elite class but was eager to explore the broader world and gain firsthand knowledge of the various Jewish sects.

One fascinating figure he mentions is Banus, referenced in Antiquities of the Jews 13:171-173. Banus appears to have been a resilient, wilderness-dwelling character, reminiscent of John the Baptist, though there is no known connection between them.

Like Banus, John the Baptist—who came from a priestly lineage (as we read in Luke 3)—also lived in the wilderness. While the origins of Banus remain unknown, it is likely that he, too, was of priestly descent. In ancient Israel, priests were educated by the greatest scholars of their time, and Banus’ wisdom suggests that he may have undergone similar training.

Josephus, himself a priest, ventured into the desert after being exposed to all the sects. His firsthand experiences make his accounts a reliable source of information on the different Jewish sects

Josephus on the Pharisees

"But then as to the two other orders at first mentioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed most skillful in the exact explication of their laws, and introduce the first sect. These ascribe all to fate [or providence], and to God, and yet allow, that to act what is right, or the contrary, is principally in the power of men, although fate does co-operate in every action. They say that all souls are incorruptible, but that the souls of good men only are removed into other bodies, - but that the souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment."

(The War of the Jews, Book 2: 162)

Josephus presents the Pharisees as the most influential and popular sect in Israel. According to him, the Pharisees upheld the belief that everything is preordained—an idea not explicitly found in the Torah but widely accepted in the Hellenistic-Roman world, where the concept of Moirai (the Fates) dictated that both gods and men were subject to an unchangeable destiny.

The Pharisees sought to reconcile this belief in fate with Jewish tradition, integrating elements from the surrounding cultural world while maintaining their distinct religious identity.

"Now, for the Pharisees, they live meanly, and despise delicacies in diet; and they follow the conduct of reason; and what that prescribes to them as good for them they do; and they think they ought earnestly to strive to observe reason's dictates for practice. They also pay a respect to such as are in years; nor are they so bold as to contradict them in any thing which they have introduced; and when they determine that all things are done by fate, they do not take away the freedom from men of acting as they think fit; since their notion is, that it hath pleased God to make a temperament, whereby what he wills is done, but so that the will of man can act virtuously or viciously. They also believe that souls have an immortal rigor in them, and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments, according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life; and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison, but that the former shall have power to revive and live again; on account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people; and whatsoever they do about Divine worship, prayers, and sacrifices, they perform them according to their direction; insomuch that the cities give great attestations to them on account of their entire virtuous conduct, both in the actions of their lives and their discourses also."

(Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18:12-15)

Josephus on the Sadducees

"But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this: That souls die with the bodies; nor do they regard the observation of any thing besides what the law enjoins them; for they think it an instance of virtue to dispute with those teachers of philosophy whom they frequent: but this doctrine is received but by a few, yet by those still of the greatest dignity. But they are able to do almost nothing of themselves; for when they become magistrates, as they are unwillingly and by force sometimes obliged to be, they addict themselves to the notions of the Pharisees, because the multitude would not otherwise bear them."

(Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18:16-17)

According to Josephus, the Sadducees rejected the concept of resurrection. This is not surprising, as the idea of life after death was a relatively new theological development in the 2nd century BC.

At this time, beliefs in an afterlife began to permeate Jewish thought, but because the Torah contains no explicit references to resurrection, the Sadducees—who were strict traditionalists—did not accept this innovation.

Josephus also characterizes the Sadducees as aristocrats, closely aligned with the priestly establishment. Their influence was deeply tied to the Temple and the ruling elite, further solidifying their role as guardians of Israel’s ancient traditions.

The Sadducees – The Philosophic Sects Among the Jews

"But the Sadducees are those that compose the second order, and take away fate entirely, and suppose that God is not concerned in our doing or not doing what is evil; and they say, that to act what is good, or what is evil, is at men's own choice, and that the one or the other belongs so to every one, that they may act as they please. They also take away the belief of the immortal duration of the soul, and the punishments and rewards in Hades.

Moreover, the Pharisees are friendly to one another, and are for the exercise of concord, and regard for the public; but the behavior of the Sadducees one towards another is in some degree wild, and their conversation with those that are of their own party is as barbarous as if they were strangers to them. And this is what I had to say concerning the philosophic sects among the Jews."

(The War of the Jews, Book II, 164-166)

Josephus on the Essenes

"For there are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first of which are the Pharisees; of the second, the Sadducees; and the third sect, which pretends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. These last are Jews by birth, and seem to have a greater affection for one another than the other sects have. These Essens reject pleasures as an evil, but esteem continence, and the conquest over our passions, to be virtue. They neglect wedlock, but choose out other persons children, while they are pliable, and fit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kindred, and form them according to their own manners. They do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage, and the succession of mankind thereby continued; but they guard against the lascivious behavior of women, and are persuaded that none of them preserve their fidelity to one man."

(The War of the Jews, Book II, 119-121)

In The War of the Jews, Josephus provides the most detailed description of the Essenes found in ancient Jewish literature. Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, his account has become even more significant, as literary research suggests a connection between the Essenes and the sect responsible for the Qumran scrolls.

The term Essenes originates from Ancient Greek. Some scholars believe the name derives from the Aramaic word for righteousness, which in Hebrew is חסידות (Hasidut).

A defining characteristic of the Essenes is their exclusivity as a group. Josephus identifies two subgroups: those who marry and those who do not.

Note: While no explicit prohibition against marriage appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls or other sources, no evidence of women has been found in Qumran. This absence extends even to the graves outside the settlement, where only men have been identified.

"These men are despisers of riches, and so very communicative as raises our admiration. Nor is there any one to be found among them who hath more than another; for it is a law among them, that those who come to them must let what they have be common to the whole order, - insomuch that among them all there is no appearance of poverty, or excess of riches, but every one's possessions are intermingled with every other's possessions; and so there is, as it were, one patrimony among all the brethren. They think that oil is a defilement; and if any one of them be anointed without his own approbation, it is wiped off his body; for they think to be sweaty is a good thing, as they do also to be clothed in white garments. They also have stewards appointed to take care of their common affairs, who every one of them have no separate business for any, but what is for the uses of them all."

(The War of the Jews, Book II, 122-123)

Josephus highlights two key characteristics of the Essenes:

1. Marriage

2. Wealth

1. Marriage

These aspects are particularly interesting within the context of the Hellenistic-Roman world, where sexual promiscuity was a common feature. Josephus emphasizes that the Essenes stood apart from this cultural norm—not necessarily because of a prohibition on marriage, but likely because those who joined the Qumran community did so for a period of spiritual education.

Even if some were married, they did not bring their families with them. They may have left them behind temporarily or joined as bachelors, planning to marry later. The primary goal of their time in Qumran was to deepen their faith and knowledge, and they believed that women had no place in this environment.

Note: In 1 Corinthians 7, Paul expresses that while he is not opposed to marriage, he suggests that a married man’s devotion is divided—half to the Lord and half to his wife. Because of this, he recommends remaining unmarried, not because marriage is flawed, but because total dedication to God is more feasible without marital responsibilities. Perhaps a similar ideology influenced the sect responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls.

2. Asset Sharing

The Hellenistic-Roman world was marked by a growing divide between the rich and the poor. In a society without social security, the Essenes introduced a unique practice—communal sharing of wealth. This was an unfamiliar concept among other groups of the time.

Note: This practice may have later influenced the early Church of Jerusalem. In Acts 2, we read that one of the defining characteristics of the Church after the Ascension of Yeshua was communal wealth-sharing. It appears that they adopted a practice already recognized and associated with the Essenes.